Efficient Irrigation

A water-wise landscape requires a minimal amount of supplemental water from irrigation. When irrigation is used, water should be applied efficiently and effectively to make every drop count. Wasted water costs money and may lead to surface water or groundwater contamination.

Just as we zone plants in the landscape according to their different water needs, irrigation systems should be zoned so plants with different water needs are irrigated separately. Turf grass, for example, should be watered separately from shrubs and flowers.

Using irrigation water efficiently also requires proper selection of irrigation methods for the plants and for each area of the landscape.

Trees and shrubs in the low water-use zone need supplemental water only during establishment or the first growing season (the first 8 to 10 weeks after transplanting), whereas plants in moderate water-use zones require water only during periods of limited rainfall when they show signs of stress. For these plants, a temporary system such as a soaker hose or hand watering may be all that is required. On the other hand, high water-use zones require frequent watering and may warrant a permanent system with automatic controls. Whenever possible, use highly efficient watering techniques, such as drip irrigation.

Below, several types of irrigation systems are described, and irrigation guidelines listed which should help you make wise water use and landscaping decisions.

Sprinkler irrigation may be as simple as a single sprinkler attached to a garden hose, or as complex as a system of underground pipes and pop-up spray heads. A typical landscape uses sprinkler irrigation for watering turf, applying water uniformly over the entire lawn. For most other applications, especially for individual trees and shrubs, drip irrigation may be better than sprinkler irrigation.

Many types of sprinklers are available. Permanent systems with pop-up spray heads are most common. They are installed underground and rise above the ground to operate. Some are designed for use in turf (those having two- to three-inch pop-up height), others are for beds of taller plants (six- to twelve-inch pop-up height). Some sprinkler heads are designed for watering small, irregularly shaped areas. These typically have a radius of 15 feet or less. Others, like rotary sprinkler heads, wet a radius of 20 to 50 feet. Most sprinklers are available with either full-circle or part-circle patterns, and have an adjustable radius for watering irregular areas.

The installation of an efficient sprinkler system begins with good design. The system must apply water uniformly over the desired area with a minimum of overspray into adjacent areas. Choosing the appropriate sprinkler for a given area is important, but the location and spacing of sprinklers are equally important. Placing partial circle sprinklers along the boundaries of an irrigated area allows uniform watering along the edges while avoiding wasteful overspray onto buildings, paved areas, and other adjacent areas.

Proper spacing of sprinklers is critical in achieving uniform water application. Sprinklers spaced too far apart will waste water by applying too much in some areas and not enough in others. On the other hand, spacing sprinklers closer than required increases the cost of the system and wastes water. In general, spacing between sprinklers should be about 50 to 60 percent of the wetted diameter. For example, sprinklers with a wetted diameter of 80 feet should be spaced 40 to 50 feet apart.

When part-circle sprinklers are used on the same zone as full-circle sprinklers, the sprinklers should be carefully selected to achieve a matched precipitation rate. A half-circle sprinkler waters only half as much area as a full-circle sprinkler; therefore it should discharge only half as much water. If a full-circle sprinkler discharges 6 gallons per minute, then a half-circle sprinkler should deliver three gallons per minute and a quarter-circle sprinkler one and a half gallons per minute. Most manufacturers offer sprinklers with matched precipitation rate (MPR) nozzles.

One other important aspect of proper design is pipe sizing. Selection of pipe sizes should be based on the flow rate through the pipe. If pipes are too small, excessive pressure losses occur. This causes some sprinklers to apply more water than others and results in non-uniform application and wasted water. Additional information on pipe sizing and irrigation system design is provided in design manuals available from sprinkler manufacturers.

Application rate is the rate at which a sprinkler system applies water to the soil surface, measured in inches per hour. If application rates exceed the infiltration capacity of the soil, then runoff occurs. Problems with runoff are more likely to occur in clay soils or compacted soils that have a lower intake capacity than sandy soils.

Rotary sprinklers usually have application rates of 1/4 to l/2 inch per hour and rarely cause runoff. Spray heads, on the other hand, typically have application rates between one and two inches per hour and may cause runoff on clay soils, especially on slopes greater than l0 percent. If runoff occurs, apply only half the total amount of water, then turn the system off for an hour or two to let the water soak in before applying the remainder of the water. Many irrigation controllers can be programmed to cycle irrigation applications.

The application rate of a sprinkler system can be determined by placing three or four rain gauges at random locations in an irrigated area for a predetermined length of time, usually one hour. By knowing the application rates of your sprinkler system, you can operate the system to apply a given amount of water and avoid wasting water. The average water level within the gauges is a measure of the output of the system in inches per hour (if the test was conducted over a one-hour period). Repeat this procedure in each sprinkler zone, particularly if different types of sprinklers are used on different zones.

Improper adjustment of sprinkler heads not only wastes water but may also damage buildings or cause accidents if the water is allowed to spray onto buildings, streets, or sidewalks. Carefully adjust the radius and arc of part-circle sprinklers to prevent undesirable overspray. Check the system several times during the year to ensure proper adjustment.

Drip irrigation, also called trickle or micro-irrigation, applies water slowly and directly to the roots of plants through small flexible pipes and flow control devices called emitters. Drip irrigation uses 30 to 50 percent less water than sprinkler irrigation and usually costs less to install. Since water is applied directly to the root zone, evaporation and runoff are minimized.

Drip irrigation is recommended for use on trees, shrubs, and flowers in the high and moderate water-use zones of the landscape to maximize efficiency. Several types of drip irrigation systems can be adapted to suit a variety of applications, from individual trees and shrubs to beds of annuals, herbaceous perennials, ground covers, or mixed borders.

In a drip system, water is distributed to the plants through small, flexible 5/8 inch in diameter plastic pipes and emitters or by perforated or porous pipe.

Emitters may be purchased separately from the tubing and placed in the line wherever watering is desired. Another option is to purchase drip tubing with emitters already installed at the factory, usually spaced 12 to 24 inches apart. Most emitters will discharge water at a rate of 1/2, one, or two gallons per hour at a pressure of about 20 pounds per square inch (psi).

Perforated or porous pipe discharges water along its entire length to wet a continuous strip. By spacing pipes 12 to 18 inches apart, it is possible to wet a solid area. This is a good system for closely-spaced plantings of annuals, herbaceous perennials, or ground covers.

Most drip systems include polyvinylchloride (PVC) pipe for the main lines and polyethylene (PE) tubing for distribution lines. Polyethylene tubing is flexible, easy to cut, and can be connected without glue or clamps. Emitters are installed by punching a hole in the polyethylene tubing and snapping the emitters into place.

A drip system must have a main valve to turn it on and off. This may be an automatic electric valve connected to a controller or a manual gate valve. You can also connect the drip lines directly to an outside faucet. However, when connecting the system directly to the faucet, use an automated timer to turn the system off after a pre-set length of time. Otherwise, you may forget and leave the system on for days.

Two other necessary components of a drip system are a filter and a pressure regulator. A drip system uses small passageways to control the rate of water application so even tiny particles suspended in the water may cause clogging. To prevent clogging, use a screen filter with a 150- to 200-mesh screen. These components are usually installed below ground in a valve box.

Most drip systems are designed to operate at a pressure of about 20 psi. In comparison, household water pressure typically ranges from 40 to 100 psi. A pressure regulator installed immediately after the filter in the main irrigation line reduces the pressure in the line and helps to ensure efficient system operation.

Because so many different types of drip irrigation components are available, choosing the best system for a particular application is often difficult. The best advice is to keep your system as simple as possible and try to wet only those areas where water can be taken up by the roots of the desired plants.

For trees and shrubs, it is generally best to use a system that allows you to insert emitters wherever water is needed. The appropriate number of emitters per plant and flow rate per emitter depend on the size and type of plant. Generally, the larger the plant, the more water it requires. Table 1 lists plant heights and the number of emitters needed to deliver adequate water.

During very dry weather, an emitter system needs to run about three times per week for four hours each time to meet the optimum water needs of the plants. Keep in mind that some species require more water than others. Consider this when installing emitters.

For watering annuals, perennials, and ground covers, it is usually necessary to irrigate a solid area. This can be done using emitter lines with emitters spaced every 12 to 18 inches. When emitter lines are placed 12 to 18 inches apart, a uniform wetting pattern can be achieved. Perforated or porous pipe spaced every 12 to 18 inches apart can also be used. In sandy soils, the lines will need to be closer together than in finer-textured clay soils. In annual flower beds, the drip lines can be laid aside during bed preparation and replaced afterward.

A similar method of watering uses small sprinkler heads, called microsprinklers, instead of emitters. All other components are identical to drip irrigation, including the polyethylene distribution lines. Microsprinklers spray an area 3 to 12 feet wide and are used for trees and shrubs or beds requiring complete coverage. Microsprinklers may be prone to vandalism and are not quite as efficient as emitters, but they do provide an economical method of achieving uniform watering.

In landscaping, drip irrigation tubing is usually installed on top of the ground and concealed beneath mulch. This makes the system easy to install and service. However, if vandalism is likely, the tubing can also be installed 4 to 6 inches beneath the soil surface with small microtubing (1/8 to 1/4 inch) protruding to the surface. Extend the microtubes 4 to 6 inches above ground to allow for easy inspection and prevent dirt from back-siphoning into the emitters and clogging the system.

Hand watering is not just for newly-placed ornamental plants. It is also an effective and efficient way of applying water to selected plants that show signs of stress during dry periods. The direct application of water to the base of the plant, provided it is applied slowly enough to be absorbed by the soil, uses less water and is more efficient than sprinkler irrigation. To avoid runoff when using a hand-held hose, use a nozzle that divides the spray into rain-size droplets. Some nozzles have built-in spray pattern adjustments.

When watering by hand, apply about 5 gallons of water per 10 square feet, which is approximately the amount of water delivered by a % -inch garden hose operating for one minute at medium pressure. Watering small shrubs (less than four feet in height) for one minute with the hand-held hose should suffice. Larger shrubs (four feet and up) will require slightly more water. Increase the watering time by 15 seconds for each foot of height over four feet. For large trees apply about six to seven gallons for each 10 square feet of canopy area. For best results, check the output of your faucet by determining the number of seconds it takes to fill a one-gallon jug and then estimating output per 60 seconds. If runoff occurs before you have applied the correct amount of water, move on to another spot and come back after the water has soaked in.

Guidelines for Irrigating the Landscape

In a xeriscape-type landscape, the goal is to minimize the amount of supplemental water. Therefore, routine irrigation should be needed only in the high-water-use zones. Occasional hand watering or a portable irrigation system, such as porous pipe, can be used as needed in the moderate-water-use zones. Established plants in low-water-use zones would receive only natural rainfall and no supplemental irrigation water except in extreme drought.

When you irrigate affects water-use efficiency. The best time to irrigate with sprinklers is after 9 p.m. and before 9 a.m. During this time there is generally less wind, a lower temperature, and less sunlight, resulting in less evaporation. Dew formed during the night does not increase disease problems. Drip irrigation systems can be operated at any time of day because the foliage stays dry and therefore evaporative water loss is not a problem.

An automatic controller attached to the irrigation system turns the system on and off and controls the water flow through the various zones according to a pre-set time clock. It allows you to set the length of time each zone operates as well as the days of the week and time of day. An automatic controller, however, does not relieve you of the need to monitor the system's operation closely. The controller should be reprogrammed frequently during the growing season because water needs change from week to week.

A rainfall sensor attached to the controller detects rainfall and prevents the irrigation system from operating if significant rainfall has occurred. Another type of sensor measures soil moisture and overrides the system when soil moisture is adequate. Sensors are especially useful if the system cannot be monitored and adjusted regularly.

You can buy many different types of controllers. Make sure you get one with the features you need. When managed properly, an automatic controller can pay for itself in reduced water usage, cost, and labor.

Irrigation for Specific Landscape Plants

Irrigating Turf Grass

Most turf grasses can survive seasonal dry periods without irrigation and therefore can be used in any water-use zone. In moderate-water-use zones, turf grass is irrigated only when it shows signs of moisture stress.

Turf under water stress appears dull bluish green, the leaf blades roll inward, and footprints remain on the grass after a person walks over an area. To prevent serious plant damage and maximize water-use efficiency, irrigate turf in moderate-water-use zones with a portable lawn sprinkler within 24 to 48 hours after these signs appear.

Under optimum growing conditions in a high-water-use zone, turf grasses use one to one and a half inches of water per week during hot, dry weather. It is usually best to divide this amount into two applications per week, applying l/2 to 3/4 inch each time. Never apply more than one inch at a time because this will likely result in runoff or deep percolation below the root zone. Early or late in the season when temperatures are cooler, once-a-week irrigation is usually adequate.

Never water grass daily except during the establishment period. Daily irrigation with a small amount of water encourages a shallow root system and reduced drought tolerance. Since roots generally grow where the soil is moist, a shallow root system also prevents efficient uptake of plant nutrients. Shallow, frequent irrigation also increases evaporative water loss from the soil.

Woody ornamental trees and shrubs have deeper, more extensive root systems than turf grasses or herbaceous ornamental plants. The root system of a mature tree, for instance, extends two to three times the canopy spread. Woody plants can therefore extract moisture from the soil even when the soil surface appears bone dry, and they can survive long dry periods without supplemental irrigation.

Use drip irrigation on trees and shrubs in the water-use zones of the landscape. Locate the emitters within the drip zone line of plants where the concentration of absorbing roots is the highest. During extended dry periods, operate the system one or two times per week. Run the system long enough to thoroughly wet the soil six to eight inches deep. Regular and thorough watering of newly planted trees and shrubs encourages good root establishment and greater drought resistance.

Herbaceous ornamentals vary widely in their tolerance to drought. Some perform adequately with a minimum of supplemental water, whereas others require close attention to soil moisture. Irrigation can be provided most efficiently if the plants within a bed have similar water needs. Herbaceous ornamentals generally have a shallower root system than woody ornamentals and are among the first plants in the landscape to show water stress during dry periods. Water these plants once or twice a week and use drip irrigation whenever possible. Be sure to mulch the entire bed area with three to four inches of organic material.

Ecologically Sound Lawn Care for the Pacific Northwest

This a summary of a report (provided courtesy of David McDonald, Seattle Public Utilities) which aims to provide three tools for persons interested in best environmental practices in lawn care:

1. An introduction to the concept of ecologically based lawn care, and a review of the scientific literature that supports a change from traditional chemical-intensive practices;

2. Practical recommendations for ecologically sound lawn care in the region west of the Cascade mountains, assembled from interviews with turf scientists and professionals and a review of literature;

3. An annotated bibliography that reviews source documents useful to residents, landscape professionals, and public resource managers.

Lawn Care:  An Ecosystem Approach

Like forests or prairie grasslands, lawns are dynamic ecosystems: communities of plants, soil, and microbes; insects and earthworms and the birds that feed on them; and humans who mow, water, fertilize, and play on the lawn. The interactions of all these community members shape the dynamic equilibrium we see as a lawn. Understanding and working within the natural processes that shape the lawn and its soil community can yield a durable, beautiful lawn that is easier to care for. As it turns out, these ecologically sound methods will also help reduce water use, waste generation, and water pollution. 

Why Make A Change?

The ecological approach to lawn care described in this report has several advantages, including:

• Reduced mowing time and fertilizer needs, and improved turf color, quality, and density.

• Enhanced resistance to diseases and weed invasion.

• Improved nutrient availability, and less soil compaction, acidification, and thatch buildup.

It is also useful to understand the disadvantages of some common current lawn care practices:

Water use: Lawn and garden watering in the Lake Oswego area increase water use by 30% during the summer. Endangered Species Act listings of salmon will increase the cost of new water supplies.

Solid and hazardous waste generation: Grass clippings from lawns are overloading regional composting facilities, when they could be reducing fertilizer use by 25-50% if left on the lawn, thus potentially reducing water pollution.

Current pesticide use in the region: The EPA estimates that 1.1 million pounds of pesticides are applied in urban areas of this region each year, with 213,000 pounds being applied by private households, predominantly on lawns and gardens. Many residents say they use “weed and feed” (a pesticide/fertilizer mix) on their lawns.

Fertilizer and pesticide pollution, and effects on aquatic life: Much of the phosphorus that enters Oswego Lake, canals, and creeks comes from single-home residential areas. Sources include fertilizers and soil wash-off. Excess nutrients promote algae blooms that decompose and deplete the oxygen needed by fish and other aquatic life.

Side effects of pesticides and soluble synthetic fertilizers on the turfgrass ecosystem: A number of studies demonstrate that regular use of these products, especially at higher levels, can reduce the diversity of essential soil life, such as earthworms, and contribute to soil compaction and acidification, and increased thatch build-up in lawns.

Possible human health effects of pesticides: While not conclusive, a number of epidemiological studies have reported an increased incidence of cancer and other health problems among families that use common lawn and garden pesticides. Children may be particularly susceptible.

Healthy Lawns Grow on Healthy Soil: 
Cultural Practices that Support the Turf Grass Ecosystem

Current best practices for lawn care west of the Cascade mountains, drawn from interviews with turf professionals and an extensive review of the scientific and professional literature include:

• Setting realistic expectations for lawn appearance, and tolerating a few weeds.

• Proper site selection, and preparation of the soil by tilling in compost to a depth of 6 to 12 inches.

• The selection of site-adapted and disease-resistant grasses.

• Moderate fertilization with natural or natural/synthetic-slow-release combination fertilizers, to build soil nutrient reserves and biodiversity.

• Mulch-mowing (also called “grass cycling”) whenever possible.

• Mowing regularly (remove only 1/3 of grass height each time), and mowing a little higher, at 2 to 2^-1/₂ inches on most lawns (or 1 inch for bentgrass lawns).

• Avoiding over-watering: water deeply, to moisten the whole root zone, but infrequently, to limit disease and build deeper roots; and water dormant lawns at least once a month during the dry season to improve post-drought recovery.

• Renovation/improvement practices that include aeration, compost topdressing, and overseeding, to reduce compaction, increase water infiltration, improve soil structure and natural disease control, and crowd out weeds.

• An integrated approach to pest problems (weeds, insects, and diseases) that includes:

1)      Correctly identifying the cause of the problem;

2)      Understanding the biology of the pest organism and its natural predators;

3)      Setting realistic thresholds of acceptable damage to the lawn from pests;

4)      Monitoring for pest problems at appropriate times of the year; and

5)      Treatment of over-threshold problems with methods that support the turf grass ecosystem and have the fewest non-target impacts on beneficial soil organisms, wildlife, pets, or humans.  Repeated broadcast or calendar-based applications of pesticides should be avoided because they may damage the diversity and stability of the grass/soil ecosystem.

In Conclusion:  Towards Sustainable Lawn Care

Turf professionals reported a number of barriers to widespread adoption of the recommended practices, including: customers’ lack of tolerance for some weeds in lawns; the desire for a deep blue-green lawn color, which can only be maintained by overfertilization; the erroneous belief that grass cycling contributes to thatch build-up in lawns; the promotional power of the chemical industry; lack of knowledge about alternatives; and the demand for immediate results on a limited budget.

Lawns are a meeting point for many public concerns, including water use, disposal of mountains of clippings and containers of hazardous chemicals, water and air pollution, human health effects, effects on salmon, birds and other wildlife, and the desire for attractive green spaces to play and live in. This offers a challenge and an opportunity for groups of resource agencies, citizens, and landscape professionals to come together and develop a consensus for change.

This entire report can be downloaded off the internet at   http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/util/rescons